Bias and Decision Making free essay sample

Both of these reflected the same numerical statement, however, decision maker may response differently with same problem. Why does this happen? Because of bias. Bias is a subjective ideas or thought. Sometimes it is injustice to receivers who got the outcome from the decision makers. There is a kind of division got from the internet: class, racism, culture, media,gender,linguistic, politice,religion,statistical number(sourced from http://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Bias Aug, 9 2008), which is based on external environment around. Under circumstance, decision maker is easy be influenced by those. Here are focused on another kind of division. The division in the textbook organised by 10 biases as follow: overconfidence bias, immediate gratification bias, selective perception bias, confirmation bias, framing bias, availability bias, representation bias, randomness bias, self-serving bias, hindsight bias,(sourced from Robbins, Bergman, Stagg Coulter, 2006, p224). These biases are divided by personal situational condition. When decision makers thought they get more and hold unrealistically positive view of themselves and performance in unfamiliar areas, which present the overconfidence bias, decision makers who wants get quick pay without further thinking and plan is easy to suffer immediate gratification bias, selective erception bias generally is a negative bias which dealing with personal sorrow biases perception, confirmation bias is always worry about this and that with contradicts past judgements, framing bias is the different attitude when decision maker selecting on how a problem is presented, availability bias is tend to meet the events that similar in the most recent and vivid in the memory, decision makers assess the likelihood of an event based on how closely it resembles other events or sets of events, that is representation bias, randomness bias is when decision maker try to create meaning out of random events, self-serving bias is decision maker who likely to award the success prior to other while blaming failure to others, hindsight bias is the tendency for decision makers falsely to believe that they would have accurately predicted the outcome of an event once that outcome is actually known, As follow, it shows a case how bias appears in the real life. We will write a custom essay sample on Bias and Decision Making or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page   newly hired engineer for a computer firm in the Silicon Valley metropolitan area has 5 years’ experience and excellent all-around qualifications, when asked to estimate the starting salary for this employee, a chemist who had very little knowledge about the profession or industry guessed an annual salary of $16,000. What is your estimate? Indeed, such engineer with 5 years’ experience and qualifications is not excessive to get a starting payment of $50,000.

History Of Education In America Essays - Educational Psychology

History Of Education In America Essays - Educational Psychology History of Education in America As far back as the beginning of our nation, early leaders emphasized the importance of education and provided funds to create education for children from every background in our country. Thomas Jefferson said, ? Above all things, I hope the education of the common people will be extended to; convinced that on this good sense we may rely with the most security for the preservation of a due degree of liberty.? He knew the importance of education (Jennings, 1996). In early America, there was concern for the common good and well being for all citizens in the known United States. John Dewey, the well known educator and philosopher, once said, ?What the best and wisest parent wants for his own child, that must the community want for the children. Any other ideal for our schools is narrow and unlovely; acted upon, it destroys our democracy.? John Dewey (1859-1952) was an American philosopher and educator whose writings and teachings have had profound influences on education in the United States. Dewey?s philosophy of education, instrumentalism (also called pragmatism), focused on learning-by-doing rather than rote learning and dogmatic instruction, the current practice of his day (Pergamon, 1994). What is public education in America? How does it fit in our history? The answers to these questions are many faceted. In 1624, Jamestown Colony founded a flax house (a place for making linen) and guaranteed the support of two poor children from each county to attend it long enough to master the skills of making linen. Earlier, the colony had tried unsuccessfully to establish a grammar school. Later, a law required parents and guardians to ensure that all children had instruction in morality and a vocation (Smith, 1994). In 1642, the Colony of Massachusetts passed a statute requiring that children be taught to read, a skill necessary for understanding the Bible. In 1647, a statute was passed requiring that every community establish a primary school and that larger communities maintain a secondary school (Smith, 1995). This 1647 law in Massachusetts became known as the ?Old Deluder-Satan Law?, because the settlers were convinced that, with education, people would not be ?deluded? by Satan (Smith, 1994). Early educational experiences were planned in the hope that school would prepare young people to become responsible citizens, improve social conditions, promote cultural diversity, help people become economically self-sufficient, enrich and enhance individual lives with happiness, make education equitable among everyone, and ensure a basic quality of education among schools. These goals were very similar to the goals of today?s public education (Jennings, 1996). As far back as the American Revolution, there was an emerging hope for common schools, though they would not become widely established for another seventy-five years. Public education seemed to be a hodgepodge made up of individual institutions and special arrangements. Schools could be home schools, church schools, boarding schools, or private tutoring. According to Jennings (1996), school was an unsystematic approach to schooling resulting in inequities. Those who did not belong to a church were excluded from schools. Native Americans and African Americans were not educated, in fact, it was against the law to teach a slave to read(Cremin, 1990). Horace Mann said , ?Beyond the power of diffusing old wealth, (education) has the prerogative of creating new. It is a thousand times more lucrative than fraud; and adds a thousand fold more to a nation?s resources than the most successful conquest.? The strength and convictions of our early leaders kept this ideal in our forefront, that American people had a responsibility to educate all children in order to achieve certain basic democratic goals (Jennings, 1996). The extensive expansion of public education through the establishment of a State Board of Education, began in Massachusetts in 1837, largely through the efforts of Horace Mann . During the 17th and 18th centuries, schools with a single teacher for students of all ages were common. It is only recent practice for schools to group students by age and give grade level specific instruction. Graded schools began to develop during the last half of the 19th Century, it did not become standard practice until well into this century. As late as 1928, sixty-three percent of this country?s 244,128 elementary schools were still

Aging differences in the brain infant to teenager Research Paper

Aging differences in the brain infant to teenager - Research Paper Example Aging differences in the brain infant to teenager:Human brain undergoes a lot of changes from infancy to teenage.This paper tends to study the developmental pattern of human brain from childhood to the teenage.According to a team of researchers from the Washington University School of Medicine in St Louis,the regions of brain used in performing word tasks are different between infants and teenagers.Results of their study suggest that the integrity of white matter microstructure affects the cognitive changes that take place with the process of aging.The study also estimated the sensitivity of DTI towards the microstructural changes in the brain which are distinct from the volumetric changes.The link between the white matter microstructure and the age was found to be more prolonged as compared to the link between the white matter microstructure,executive function and the memory.The processing speed’s link with the white matter microstructure was found to be the largest in extent in the cognitive domains.One study determined alike levels of activation in some regions of the brain like frontal lobe regions in both infants and teenagers as they performed the tasks. Paradoxically,the research conducted on the development of human brain has conventionally shown a slow pattern of maturity of the frontal lobe (Schlaggar cited in Physorg, 2005).The perception of experts about the under-use of frontal lobes in children as compared to adults is a result of the very protracted development. Nonetheless, the recent research has determined like functionality of the frontal lobes in children as well as adults. We were surprised by the locations of many of the similarities and differences. We found that a few brain regions 'grow up', that is are used more frequently as we mature. Other regions 'grow down', or become less active, and some appear to stay the same across these ages. (Tim Brown cited in Physorg, 2005). Another surprising result that Brown found in the researc h was earlier maturity of the frontal brain regions than the regions at the back which was in contrast to the information derived from the earlier structural data. The results were obtained with the help of recent development in the fMRI scanning. Previously, the fMRI scanner images were taken over a long time period. That way, the brain activity could be studied by the researchers, but they were not able to discern the brain’s reaction to a particular stimulus. The research conducted by Brown and his colleagues, the event-related fMRI method was employed in which snapshots at a distance of three seconds from one another were taken. Using them, the researchers were able to see the activated parts of the brain upon stimulation by the tasks of word generation. According to Bergen (2000), there is a consensus of most researchers upon the facts about the development of brain in infants and toddlers some of which are discussed here. As much as 60 per cent of the human genes before birth is used up in the development of brain. Human brain at the time of birth is completed only up to 25 per cent. The working of brain is integrative and interactive. Human brain is like a jungle, all of whose parts are richly interconnected. Well developed structures in the brain show sensitivity to the language comprehension and production and various emotional and social responses. 75 per cent of development in the brain occurs after the birth. The structure and performance of brain in the adulthood depends, to much an extent, upon the experiences gained in the early years of life. The first structures which develop in the brain

Information Sytems - Article Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Information Sytems - Article - Research Paper Example Quite a few studies and reports have been published on this topic and the rationale of the study is due to lack of financial support, remoteness, education, and trained manpower in the Indigenous community. There are various recommendations from researchers and practitioners to address these shortcomings including community access centres, social inclusion, improving social capital and software packages that can provide custom solutions. However, unless more and more members of the Indigenous community have access to and use the Internet and ICT, the fundamental objective of the government’s information systems implementation on communities will be lost. In order to bridge this gap the proposed framework attempts to enact as the integrated platform for the government organisations and other partners such as NGOs or public/private business sections to implement a dynamic business process model for social or community information development in the Indigenous community. The paper begins with the discussion of the importance of ICT in governance and its impact on the Indigenous community of Australia. It focuses on the gaps that exist with regard to its impact on the nonnative population in the country and its Indigenous population. A Dynamic Business Process Development Framework (DBPDF) is proposed to form the backbone of a system where effective implementation of ICT can benefit the Indigenous population of the nation. The paper concludes with a detailed delineation and the rationale behind the implementation of the DBPDF and recommendations for some future research directions. Availability of data, and the resulting information and knowledge are essential components for any organisation to be effective. This is true for any organisation regardless of its form for profit or service. The 21st Century information systems through the cutting edge Information and

Critically evaluate John Lewis Partniership as an example of conscious Essay - 1

Critically evaluate John Lewis Partniership as an example of conscious capitalism - Essay Example The company has a great distinction of being the high-street website in United Kingdom. The image of the company is upmarket, and it helps in appealing to both the middle and upper class shoppers. Recently, the company has broadened its marketing strategy towards all types of buyers in the market. This has been done through the introduction of the value range to the John Lewis stores and essential to Waitrose supermarkets, and ultimately the expansion of the whole business. The model upon which John Lewis Partnership has been able to develop success, provides the most valuable array of information, where people may draw as they seek to develop alternative businesses anchored to the principles of social economy. John Lewis’ legal form has been used to distinguish it from other businesses. Firstly, John Lewis partnership has a constitution guiding the operational processes. The shareholders profits do not dictate, but it based on a series of its principles. On this case, the members’ happiness is considered the supreme purposes of the partnership. Such happiness relies on the workers having a satisfying job in a successful business (Gomm 2004, p.6). John Lewis partnership employs the principles of conscious capitalism to run the organization. The employees and not an individual own the company. The paper will expound briefly on the background of John Lewis partnership and conscious capitalism. It will also evaluate both John Lewis and Conscious capitalism principles and their applicability. Finally, it will also look into how the partnership uses the principles of capitalism to run. John Lewis became a first legal entity in the year 1929 after the creation of the initial trust settlement. All of the company’s profits were available for distribution among the partners of the company, which are the employees. The founder of the John Lewis partnership, Spedan Lewis, had to sacrifice his personal ownership in order to fulfill his underlying dream

How Do Biometrics Affect Privacy?

How Do Biometrics Affect Privacy? Introduction The research question for this essay is going to be how Biometrics affects Privacy. This particular question is chosen because in the increasing number of biometrics systems that are emerging, which has increased the risk of invading privacy. The issue that is going to be discussed in this paper is that how increasing biometrics technology has raised concerns in relation to the protection of individual privacy and has the government took biometric technology a step too far in invading privacy. This issue is important because as more and more biometric technology comes into use, the protection of privacy is going to be taken away and individuals have a right to keep certain information about themselves anonymous and have the right to be left alone. The argument is that how can the government collect biometrics of individuals without having too much information, and unnecessary information. Businesses and organisations that hold information about their employees and other individuals, surely must be concerning on how safe the information is and how the business uses this information for the right reasons. Context Biometrics is being used more frequently in everyday life, they are used for verification as after 9/11 security has been tightened and more checks on people are being undertaken. More checks mean that more information is needed about individuals including biometric information, this leads to a whole new topic of should organisation should be allowed to collect biometric data? Is this not a step too far? All this talk about biometrics being used in various places, but what is biometrics? Biometrics is the collection of personal data such as fingerprints, iris, retina, voice, hand geometry etc. All these characteristics are stored on a centralised database where they can identify people who are criminals. This type of technology is used mostly everywhere now with the aim to cut down on crime. Biometrics are being used more by organisations and governments, because biometrics is accurate discrimination between individuals, Over the years, Biometric Technology has been considered as a measure of the highest security method. The primary reason for the use of biometric technology is to cut down on criminal activities, as Dr Ann Cavoukian says in the journal Privacy and Biometrics, that finger prints are used by the police to identify criminals. This, some would say is a encouraging move in order to prevent criminal activities, but on the other hand some would raise the question that, is biometric technology a step too far in invading individuals privacy?. The increasing use of Biometrics has raised concerns regarding individual privacy, as Prabhakar says in the journal Biometric Recognition: Security and Privacy Concerns Those who desire to remain anonymous in any particular situation could be denied their privacy by biometric recognition. Individuals have the right to protect their privacy and have control of what information others should have about them, in the paper Privacy and or as Freedom, Gos Hose in, says individuals must be allowed to choose what information is made available about themselves, and under which circumstances. Biometrics however, does not allow individuals to have an option on what information may be stored, as the databases have individuals, fingerprints, hand geometry, iris and also voice, many major companies have individuals personal details, but knowing that your personal features are stored away on a database can be somewhat of a concern. These concerns are all valid, as all this information can be hacked, or even leaked. Billy Hawkes, Data Protection Commissioner of Ireland said that Personal information might be shared with third parties, with or without a persons knowledge. There are always high risks, when personal information is stored of many millions of individuals, the main issue that concerns many people is that how safe is this information. Biometrics is used as a source of identification and verification by the police against criminals. Fingerprints are the most common use for indentifying criminals and the use of fingerprints date back to 1879, where a French policeman named Alphonse Bertillon suggested that people could be precisely identified by carefully measuring different parts of the body, but apart from fingerprints other types of biometrics are also used such as retina, iris and voice prints. All this information put together can create a personal profile of individual. The more extensive use of biometrics has caused privacy issues where there are organisations holding vast amount of data about individuals that may not be needed, in which case people should have control on what information is being stored and for what reason. People do not have a say on what information can be stored or not, there should be a law that individuals should have a right and a say on what information can be stored. Organisations ha ving this information about people, suggests that there is someone always keeping an eye on people and tracking their every move. This brings in the topic of big Brother. In the UK there up as many as 4.2million CCTV cameras, thats equivalent one camera per 14 individuals, which mean that each person in the country is caught on camera an average of 300 times daily. This statistics show that people in UK are being caught on CCTV up to 300 times a day, this affects individuals privacy in a huge manner, as the images captured on CCTV, they are stored on a database where the police can use the images to solve crimes. But the question here is should the capturing of images and storing them on databases be allowed? Most privacy advocates would be against this but people are who are for more security and crack down on crime wouldnt therefore mind these databases storing images. The increase in modern technology these days allows biometrics to uniquely indentify individuals. The ability of biometrics technology to do this has raised concerns regarding privacy even more than before. More and more biometrics is being used in everyday life, for example biometrics are use in school, colleges and organisations. By the use of biometrics in this way, individuals are likely to be monitored more and more. Biometrics affects privacy in a huge way, that it has made people and privacy advocates wonder that is there such thing as privacy in the modern day, with all the new technology evolving. The question many people are asking is that, can biometrics be used in such a way that it doesnt affect individuals privacy? Ann Cavoukian suggested that for authentication, there is no need to store biometrics on a centralised database; the individuals can be giving a card, which has a template of their biometrics stored on the card and it is on the hands on the individual, A template could be stored on a card, in possession of the individual, thereby putting the control over access in the hand of the data subject. This will reduce the threat of invasion in privacy considerably, since more biometrics data will be in the hands of the individuals and the thought of having that personal information about them with them, will make the public feel safer. Identity cards are due to be introduced in the UK either in 2011 or 2012. These cards will contain 2 fingerprints and a photo which will be encoded on a chip which will be on the cards itself. This method will be regarded as being safer by the public, as they will have their own biometrics with themselves and the information that is in the databases will be the same as the information that is stored on the chip. This will determine that only minimum information is known to other people. There are also drawbacks to this practise, as the identity card can be lost or stolen, which means that the persons biometrics are in the hands of someone else. Heathrow airport has launched the use of fingerprint recognition, when terminal 5 was opened back in 2008. This will be used to make sure that the right passengers are boarding the flight as well as being photographed. Is all this really necessary? For years airports have used passports for verification, so what is the need to use biometrics, collect personal information and invade people privacy. David Millward and Gordan Rayner said in the Telegraph that gathering personal information will make innocent people feel like criminals. Launching fingerprint recognition systems at airports is by all means breaching all rights to privacy for individual people. The fact of passengers being photographed when entering the airport and storing the images on their database in wrong, because passengers may not give permission for their photo being taken and storing them on the database. There is always a risk of these images and biometric information getting in the hands of the wrong people. There is always going to be that threat of privacy being invaded by various organisations and everyday activities. After all these threats to individuals privacy and personal information, where does this leave privacy in respect to individuals? Well, many people would say that all these organisations and government having personal information and also storing biometrics, leads to the individuals having no sort of privacy what so ever. In the paper Privacy and or as Freedom written by hoesin gus, there is a quote from William Pitt saying There are many other ways of defining privacy. In an early form, as me moved towards modern democratic systems of governance, privacy was considered as a protection from invasion. Privacy has come a long way over the years and still it continues to increase in terms of individual privacy. As the years have gone on privacy has got out of hand, in terms of what information should organisations and governments have about individuals. There is some inform ation that should be kept with the individual. Should organisations be allowed the have as much information as they wish? Or only information that they require? Information regarding individuals can be potentially dangerous because that information can be passed on to the wrong hands which can lead to identity theft. Biometric Technology has come a long way in terms of authentication and recognition, the question is that is are these systems safe. To build biometric systems the design of it has to be very good and a very safe system. Some say that biometrics is neither good nor bad for privacy, its how the public view privacy, and some people would be in favour of biometrics systems and some people would be against biometrics. According to Timothy Pilgrim, Biometric technologies are not inherently good or bad for privacy. They become good or bad for privacy depending on how they are designed, developed and deployed. Timothy Pilgrim suggests that biometrics is neither good nor bad for privacy, because it depends on how these systems are used and what people make of it. Biometrics has always been a subject of controversy, on how will it be used and how the information will be stored. The opinion on biometrics seems to be divided according to Pilgrim. The use of biometrics is bring piloted in the UK in the form of Identity cards. These identity cards will be handed out to every individual who live in the UK. These ID cards will have a chip on them that will hold personal information also including biometrics of that person. This is a good way of keeping biometric information safe, as this card will be in the possession of the individuals so they can keep their personal information safe. But the drawback is that if that card gets lost, or stolen then others will have your information. Are ID cards a step in the right direction in terms of biometrics? Well its a start, as the individuals will have their own information with them, as in the past that has not been an option. This ID card is said to be similar in look to a UK driving licence but holds more data, including two fingerprints and a photograph encoded on a chip Privacy is a sensitive subject over many years and the introduction of biometrics has not helped the case. Collecting biometric information has caused a lot of controversy in the world. Is it right to collect people biometric information and store it without their permission? Most people would say no and would protest about the fact that the governments and organisations are carrying out this activity. In 2001 at a superbowl game in Florida, they used facial recognition biometrics to identify known criminals and terrorists. This action has been introduced after the September 9, 2001 attacks. After that the biometric industry has been booming according to Privacy Today: A Review of Current (2002). Conclusion Biometrics is used all over the world now, from airport security to verification for an employer in an organisation. Biometrics is a part of life that is going to continue. Collecting personal information of individuals could not get any worse. Individuals have a right to protect their privacy, which include documents and their biometrics. As technology increases, biometrics will play a major part in authentication and identification. But collecting all this information and using biometrics for the above reason causes serious privacy issues. The individuals data is in the hands of someone else and there is always a risk of that information getting leaked and falling in to the wrong hands. There are a lot of disadvantages in using biometric technology, a lot of things have to be considered when using fingerprint and face recognition. Using these techniques can invade individuals personal space and collecting too much personal information about individuals is not respecting their priva cy. Biometrics has come a long way in terms of security and will continue to expand and used more around the world. All these biometrics being used, what can be done to protect individuals? How can information about individuals be more protected, this is a area which people need to think about, personal information about individuals should be kept with them and shouldnt be shared within organisations. So what does this mean for biometrics and privacy? Well the use of biometrics is going to increase, and is going to be used is most public places, how can organisations keep a balance between using and collecting personal information and respecting peoples privacy. In this article the topic of privacy has been discussed, and how biometrics is invading individuals personal space, by collecting personal information about them. To conclude, biometrics has its advantages, by catching known criminals and cutting down on terrorism, but at the cost of all this is to invade people privacy and personal space.

Exploring Reincarnation :: Religion Culture Cultural

Exploring Reincarnation Missing Works Cited For as long as man has been on this earth, one of the most popular questions without a finite answer has been, what happens after we die? Each culture, religion, organization, family, and any other group of people has had their own views about this subject for as far back as history goes, and probably even farther. One particular answer to this question is reincarnation. The simple version of reincarnation is re-birth. When one dies, they lose their physical being, but their soul lives on and is re-born into another body. According to the Buddhists, â€Å"Central to the belief in rebirth is the idea of an individual stream-consciousness. As an unceasing flux of primal spiritual energy, it acts as a concurrent link with the new body conceived in the mother’s womb. The nature of rebirth is closely linked with, or is the effect of, past thoughts and deeds. Rebirth is thus an essential part of the natural law of causality.† (pg. 74, child incarnate) The western wo rld has traditionally been quick to dismiss the idea of reincarnation as nay say. They don’t believe it is possible for someone to be reborn into a new body, most of the time due to religion, mainly Christianity and Judaism, both of which have rejected reincarnation as a valid theory. The Eastern half of the world however, has consistently accepted reincarnation. Four hundred million Buddhists, Hindus, Jains, and Sikhs believe in reincarnation according to statistics. (Christie-Murray, 50) Although the western world has had increasing numbers of people believing in reincarnation, it is still widely disregarded. In the west, we live in a very materialistic age, and for that reason, very little consideration is given to anything besides the present. Reincarnation should not be disregarded so easily however, because there are a lot of logical reason it can be, and probably is, true. There is overwhelming evidence of reincarnation beliefs in every period of time, so it is not some notion that was recently just made up for comfort or stability. There are many stories of people who can remember vivid details of their former lives, and even biological evidence such as birthmarks that are a result of an injury in a prior life. Reincarnation can also be a good explanation for child geniuses like Mozart, and even the current Dali Llama.